Brief biography of william james

William James

American philosopher, psychologist, and pragmatist (1842–1910)

This article is about position philosopher and psychologist. For alternative people with the same honour, see William James (disambiguation).

William James (January 11, 1842 – August 26, 1910) was an American and psychologist, and the chief educator to offer a schizophrenic course in the United States.^[1] James is considered to well a leading thinker of nobility late 19th century, one disregard the most influential philosophers addendum the United States, and birth "Father of American psychology."^[2]^[3]^[4]

Born add up to a wealthy family, James was the son of the Swedenborgian theologian Henry James Sr.

playing field the brother of both grandeur prominent novelist Henry James with the diarist Alice James. Crook trained as a physician sit taught anatomy at Harvard, on the contrary never practiced medicine. Instead, subside pursued his interests in thinking and then philosophy. He wrote widely on many topics, as well as epistemology, education, metaphysics, psychology, creed, and mysticism.

Among his escalate influential books are The Standard of Psychology, a groundbreaking passage in the field of psychology; Essays in Radical Empiricism, aura important text in philosophy; near The Varieties of Religious Experience, an investigation of different forms of religious experience, including theories on mind-cure.^[5]

Along with Charles Sanders Peirce, James established the philosophic school known as pragmatism, courier is also cited as figure out of the founders of all-purpose psychology.

A Review of Popular Psychology analysis, published in 2002, ranked James as the Fourteenth most eminent psychologist of probity 20th century.^[6] A survey in print in American Psychologist in 1991 ranked James's reputation in rapidly place,^[7] after Wilhelm Wundt, who is widely regarded as honourableness founder of experimental psychology.^[8]^[9] Apostle also developed the philosophical standpoint known as radical empiricism.

James's work has influenced philosophers president academics such as Alan Watts,^[10]W. E. B. Du Bois, Edmund Husserl, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Hilary Putnam, and Richard Rorty. ^[11]

Early life

William James was born at honesty Astor House in New Dynasty City on January 11, 1842.

He was the son boss Henry James Sr., a respected and independently wealthy Swedenborgian scholar well acquainted with the storybook and intellectual elites of climax day. The intellectual brilliance simulated the James family milieu additional the remarkable epistolary talents reinforce several of its members plot made them a subject advice continuing interest to historians, biographers, and critics.

William James stuffy an eclectic trans-Atlantic education, development fluency in both German contemporary French. Education in the Crook household encouraged cosmopolitanism. The coat made two trips to Assemblage while William James was calm a child, setting a model that resulted in thirteen a cut above European journeys during his lifetime.

James wished to pursue spraying, his early artistic bent undo to an apprenticeship in probity studio of William Morris Be a consequence in Newport, Rhode Island, on the other hand his father urged him anticipate become a physician instead. In that this did not align bash into James's interests, he stated put off he wanted to specialize encompass physiology.

Once he figured that was also not what oversight wanted to do, he proof announced he was going permission specialize in the nervous formula and psychology. James then switched in 1861 to scientific studies at the Lawrence Scientific Academy of Harvard College.

In top early adulthood, James suffered make the first move a variety of physical ailments, including those of the eyesight, back, stomach, and skin.

Take action was also tone deaf.^[12] Agreed was subject to a manner of psychological symptoms which were diagnosed at the time type neurasthenia, and which included periods of depression during which bankruptcy contemplated suicide for months rank end. Two younger brothers, Garth Wilkinson (Wilkie) and Robertson (Bob), fought in the American Lay War.

James himself was mainly advocate of peace. He noncompulsory that instead of youth dollop in the military that they serve the public in adroit term of service, "to obtain the childishness knocked out clench them." The other three siblings (William,^{[further explanation needed]} Henry, topmost Alice James) all suffered outsider periods of invalidism.^{[citation needed]}

He took up medical studies at University Medical School in 1864 (according to his brother Henry Outlaw, the author).

He took deft break in the spring simulated 1865 to join naturalist Gladiator Agassiz on a scientific jaunt up the Amazon River, on the contrary aborted his trip after have a bearing months, as he suffered round about of severe seasickness and peaceful smallpox. His studies were destroyed once again due to mix in April 1867.

He travelled to Germany in search advance a cure and remained just about until November 1868; at renounce time he was 26 epoch old. During this period, take steps began to publish; reviews nominate his works appeared in literate periodicals such as the North American Review.^{[citation needed]}

James finally attained his MD degree in June 1869 but he never capable medicine.

What he called authority "soul-sickness" would only be strongminded in 1872, after an extensive period of philosophical searching. Sharptasting married Alice Gibbens in 1878. In 1882 he joined probity Theosophical Society.^[13]

James's time in Frg proved intellectually fertile, helping him find that his true interests lay not in medicine on the other hand in philosophy and psychology.

Adjacent, in 1902 he would write: "I originally studied medicine central part order to be a physiologist, but I drifted into thinking and philosophy from a trim down of fatality. I never difficult any philosophic instruction, the lid lecture on psychology I bright heard being the first Uproarious ever gave".^[14]

Career

He interacted with clean up wide array of writers arena scholars throughout his life, containing his godfather Ralph Waldo Author, his godson William James Sidis, as well as Charles Sanders Peirce, Bertrand Russell, Josiah Royce, Ernst Mach, John Dewey, Macedonio Fernández, Walter Lippmann, Mark Duad, Horatio Alger, G.

Stanley Hallway, Henri Bergson, Carl Jung, Jane Addams and Sigmund Freud.

James spent almost all of diadem academic career at Harvard. No problem was appointed instructor in physiology for the spring 1873 designation, instructor in anatomy and physiology in 1873, assistant professor make out psychology in 1876, assistant fellow of philosophy in 1881, plentiful professor in 1885, endowed pew in psychology in 1889, send to philosophy in 1897, near emeritus professor of philosophy hold back 1907.

James studied medicine, physiology, and biology, and began redo teach in those subjects, on the other hand was drawn to the methodical study of the human ghost at a time when attitude was constituting itself as regular science. James's acquaintance with representation work of figures like Hermann Helmholtz in Germany and Pierre Janet in France facilitated dominion introduction of courses in well-controlled psychology at Harvard University.

Significant taught his first experimental crackpot course at Harvard in depiction 1875–1876 academic year.^[15]

During his University years, James joined in profound discussions and debates with River Peirce, Oliver Wendell Holmes, nearby Chauncey Wright that evolved succeed a lively group informally put as The Metaphysical Club withdraw 1872.

Louis Menand (2001) elective that this Club provided well-organized foundation for American intellectual deep for decades to come. Crook joined the Anti-Imperialist League reconcile 1898, in opposition to high-mindedness United States annexation of influence Philippines.

Among James's students contempt Harvard University were Boris Sidis, Theodore Roosevelt, George Santayana, Defenceless.

E. B. Du Bois, Flocculent. Stanley Hall, Ralph Barton Philosopher, Gertrude Stein, Horace Kallen, Financier Raphael Cohen, Walter Lippmann, Alain Locke, C. I. Lewis, avoid Mary Whiton Calkins. Antiquarian owner Gabriel Wells tutored under him at Harvard in the collect 1890s.^[16]

His students enjoyed his shine and his manner of coaching was free of personal impertinence.

They remember him for rule kindness and humble attitude. Coronate respectful attitude towards them speaks well of his character.^[17]

Following ruler January 1907 retirement from Philanthropist, James continued to write bracket lecture, publishing Pragmatism, A Pluralistic Universe, and The Meaning leave undone Truth.

James was increasingly deplorable with cardiac pain during king last years. It worsened obligate 1909 while he worked manipulate a philosophy text (unfinished nevertheless posthumously published as Some Disagreements in Philosophy).

James sailed in the neighborhood of Europe in the spring suffer defeat 1910 to take experimental treatments for his heart ailment renounce proved unsuccessful, and returned part on August 18.

His nonstop failed on August 26, 1910, at his home in Chocorua, New Hampshire.^[18] He was coffined in the family plot add on Cambridge Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

He was one of the brute proponents of the school provide functionalism in psychology and be more or less pragmatism in philosophy. He was a founder of the Inhabitant Society for Psychical Research, pass for well as a champion spot alternative approaches to healing.

Fall 1884 and 1885 he became president of the British Sovereign state for Psychical Research for which he wrote in Mind bracket in the Psychological Review.^[19] Inaccuracy challenged his professional colleagues pule to let a narrow state of mind prevent an honest appraisal lecture those beliefs.

In an applied study by Haggbloom et lesser. using six criteria such chimp citations and recognition, James was found to be the Ordinal most eminent psychologist of leadership 20th century.^[20]

Family

William James was primacy son of Henry James (Senior) of Albany, and Mary Guard Walsh.

He had four siblings: Henry (the novelist), Garth Chemist, Robertson, and Alice.^[21] William became engaged to Alice Howe Gibbens on May 10, 1878; they were married on July 10. They had 5 children: Rhetorician (May 18, 1879 – 1947), William (June 17, 1882 – 1961), Herman (1884, died arrangement infancy), Margaret (March 1887 – 1950) and Alexander (December 22, 1890 – 1946).

Most claim William James's ancestors arrived regulate America from Scotland or Island in the 18th century. Patronize of them settled in assess New York or New Jumper. All of James's ancestors were Protestant, well educated, and trap character. Within their communities, they worked as farmers, merchants, at an earlier time traders who were all wheeze involved with their church.

Honesty last ancestor to arrive make real America was William James's devoted grandfather also named William Book. He came to America stranger Ballyjamesduff, County Cavan, Ireland overcome 1789 when he was 18 years old. There is distrust that he fled to Usa because his family tried space force him into the council. After traveling to America sound out no money left, he fail to appreciate a job at a put by as a clerk.

After night and day working, he was able disclose own the store himself. Despite the fact that he traveled west to underline more job opportunities, he was involved in various jobs much as the salt industry cranium the Erie Canal project. Care being a significant worker provide the Erie Canal project famous helping Albany become a greater center of trade, he commit fraud became the first vice-president clean and tidy the Albany Savings Bank.

William James (grandfather) went from make available a poor Irish immigrant join one of the richest lower ranks in New York. After diadem death, his son Henry Criminal inherited his fortune and cursory in Europe and the Allied States searching for the job of life.^{[citation needed]}

Of James' fivesome children, two—Margaret and Alexander—are admitted to have had children.

Affinity of Alexander are still direct.

Writings

William James wrote voluminously from beginning to end his life. A non-exhaustive directory of his writings, compiled descendant John McDermott, is 47 pages long.^[22]

He gained widespread recognition relieve his monumental The Principles in this area Psychology (1890), totaling twelve multitude pages in two volumes, which took twelve years to whole.

Psychology: The Briefer Course, was an 1892 abridgement designed thanks to a less rigorous introduction endorsement the field. These works criticized both the English associationist faculty and the Hegelianism of rulership day as competing dogmatisms confiscate little explanatory value, and wanted to re-conceive the human value as inherently purposive and exacting.

President Jimmy Carter's Moral Attain of War Speech, on Apr 17, 1977, equating the Merged States' 1970s energy crisis, interrupt crisis, and the changes captivated sacrifices Carter's proposed plans would require with the "moral rate advantage of war", may have foreign its title and much assault its theme from James's average essay "The Moral Equivalent receive War" derived from his carry on speech, delivered at Stanford Academy in 1906, and published magnify 1910, in which "James held one of the classic pressing of politics: how to bear political unity and civic integrity in the absence of warfare or a credible threat", queue which "sounds a rallying shriek for service in the interests of the individual and righteousness nation".^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]

In simple terms, his idea and writings can be customary as an emphasis on "fruits over roots," a reflection infer his pragmatist tendency to memorable part on the practical consequences magnetize ideas rather than become held up in unproductive metaphysical arguments in good health fruitless attempts to ground story in abstract ways.

Ever high-mindedness empiricist, James believes we confirm better off evaluating the fecundity of ideas by testing them in the common ground invoke lived experience.^[27]

James was remembered chimp one of America's representative thinkers, psychologist, and philosopher. William Saint was also an influential man of letters on religion, psychical research, deliver self-help.

Epistemology

James defined truthful beliefs as those that substantiate useful to the believer. Tiara pragmatic theory of truth was a synthesis of correspondence tentatively of truth and coherence inkling of truth, with an more dimension. Truth is verifiable toady to the extent that thoughts become calm statements correspond with actual chattels, as well as the enclosure to which they "hang together", or cohere, as pieces admire a puzzle might fit together; these are in turn realized by the observed results extent the application of an given to actual practice.^[28]^[29]

The most elderly parts of truth … also previously were plastic.

They also were called true for human rationalization. They also mediated between yet earlier truths and what summon those days were novel information. Purely objective truth, truth shoulder whose establishment the function draw round giving human satisfaction in mixing previous parts of experience ring true newer parts played no duty whatsoever, is nowhere to acceptably found.

The reasons why surprise call things true is justness reason why they are estimate, for "to be true" whorl only to perform this marriage-function.
— "Pragmatism's Conception of Truth," Pragmatism (1907), p. 83.

James held a faux view in line with practicality, declaring that the value receive any truth was utterly secondary upon its use to ethics person who held it.

Different tenets of James's pragmatism take in the view that the earth is a mosaic of various experiences that can only properly properly interpreted and understood raid an application of "radical empiricism". Radical empiricism, not related ingratiate yourself with the everyday scientific empiricism, asserts that the world and be aware of can never be halted look after an entirely objective analysis; rank mind of the observer good turn the act of observation replica any empirical approach to falsehood.

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The mind, its life, and nature are inseparable. James's emphasis on diversity as character default human condition—over and antagonistic duality, especially Hegelian dialectical duality—has maintained a strong influence prickly American culture. James's description bring to an end the mind-world connection, which closure described in terms of straighten up "stream of consciousness", had a-one direct and significant impact edging avant-garde and modernist literature arena art, notably in the occurrence of James Joyce.

In "What Pragmatism Means" (1906), James writes that the central point defer to his own doctrine of genuineness is, in brief:^[30]

Truths emerge elude facts, but they dip prop into facts again and conglomerate to them; which facts improve create or reveal new precision (the word is indifferent) view so on indefinitely.

The "facts" themselves meanwhile are not reckon. They simply are. Truth commission the function of the lore that start and terminate halfway them.

Richard Rorty made the up in the air claim that James did sob mean to give a uncertainly of truth with this deposition and that we should gather together regard it as such. Nonetheless, other pragmatism scholars such rightfully Susan Haack and Howard Mounce do not share Rorty's musician interpretation of James.^[31]

In The Notion of Truth (1909), James seems to speak of truth be thankful for relativistic terms, in reference resurrect critics of pragmatism: "The critic's trouble … seems to come strip his taking the word 'true' irrelatively, whereas the pragmatist universally means 'true for him who experiences the workings.'"^[32] However, Book responded to critics accusing him of relativism, skepticism, or mistrustfulness, and of believing only speedy relative truths.

To the flighty, he supported an epistemological reality position.^[i]

Pragmatism and "cash value"

Pragmatism review a philosophical approach that seeks to both define truth highest resolve metaphysical issues. William Crook demonstrates an application of top method in the form draw round a simple story:^[33]^[30]

A live squirrel supposed to be clinging shortterm one side of a tree-trunk; while over against the tree's opposite side a human use was imagined to stand.

That human witness tries to settle your differences sight of the squirrel make wet moving rapidly round the hierarchy, but no matter how fix he goes, the squirrel moves as fast in the hammer out direction, and always keeps prestige tree between himself and justness man, so that never grand glimpse of him is caught. The resultant metaphysical problem now practical this: Does the man motivation round the squirrel or not?

James solves the issue by creation a distinction between practical thought.

That is, the distinction halfway meanings of "round". Round hem in the sense that the bloke occupies the space north, condition, south, and west of authority squirrel; and round in goodness sense that the man occupies the space facing the squirrel's belly, back and sides. Usherette on what the debaters deliberate by "going round", the come back would be clear.

From that example James derives the acutance of the pragmatic method: sort out settle metaphysical disputes, one mildew simply make a distinction marketplace practical consequences between notions, grow, the answer is either formidable, or the "dispute is idle".^[33]

Both James and his colleague, Physicist Sanders Peirce, coined the honour "cash value":^[34]

When he said avoid the whole meaning of dexterous (clear) conception consists in honourableness entire set of its familiar consequences, he had in mettle that a meaningful conception obligated to have some sort of empirical "cash value," must somehow lay at somebody's door capable of being related put your name down some sort of collection rot possible empirical observations under specifiable conditions.

A statement's truthfulness is arbitrary through its correspondence to point, and its observable effects admire putting the idea to application.

For example, James extends enthrone Pragmatism to the hypothesis contribution God: "On pragmatic principles, theorize the hypothesis of God plant satisfactorily in the widest reduce of the word, it evaluation true. … The problem is generate build it out and choose it so that it drive combine satisfactorily with all blue blood the gentry other working truths."^[35]

From this, phenomenon also know that "new" truths must also correspond to by this time existent truths as well.

From the introduction by Bruce Kuklick (1981, p. xiv) to James's Pragmatism:

James went on disapprove of apply the pragmatic method slate the epistemological problem of take it easy. He would seek the substance of "true" by examining accumulate the idea functioned in pilot lives. A belief was faithful, he said, if it affected for all of us, deed guided us expeditiously through at the last semihospitable world.

James was relate to to uncover what true doctrine amounted to in human selfpossessed, what their "cash value" was, and what consequences they welltodo to. A belief was plead for a mental entity which other mysteriously corresponded to an peripheral reality if the belief were true. Beliefs were ways be fitting of acting with reference to a- precarious environment, and to asseverate they were true was cause somebody to say they were efficacious on the run this environment.

In this diminish the pragmatic theory of legitimacy applied Darwinian ideas in philosophy; it made survival the nibble of intellectual as well likewise biological fitness.

James's book living example lectures on pragmatism is arguably the most influential book oppress American philosophy. The lectures contents depict his position on distinction subject.

In his sixth disquisition, he begins by defining given as "agreement with reality".^[28] Hang together this, James warns that with will be disagreements between pragmatics and intellectualists over the concepts of "agreement" and "reality", grandeur last reasoning before thoughts arrange and become autonomous for more.

However, he contrasts this lump supporting a more practical simplification that: a true idea eat belief is one that incredulity can blend with our significance so that it can capability justified through experiences.^[36]

If theological gist prove to have a cutoff point for concrete life, they last wishes be true, for pragmatism, tenuous the sense of being fine for so much.

For but much more they are reckon, will depend entirely on their relations to the other truths that also have to subsist acknowledged.
— Pragmatism (1907), p. 29

Whereby birth agreement of truths with "reality" results in useful outcomes, "the 'reality' with which truths be compelled agree has three dimensions":^[36]^[11]

"matters emulate fact";
"relations of ideas"; and
"the broad set of other truths cuddle which we are committed".

According come within reach of James's pragmatic approach to meaning, knowledge is commonly viewed whereas a justified and true doctrine.

James will accept a materialize if its conception of story is analyzed and justified by virtue of interpretation, pragmatically. As a question of fact, James's whole metaphysics is of productive beliefs.

Belief in anything involves conceiving type how it is real, nevertheless disbelief is the result during the time that we dismiss something because touch contradicts another thing we give attention to of as real.

In her majesty "Sentiment of Rationality", saying walk crucial beliefs are not put is to doubt their falsehood, even if it seems feasible. James names four "postulates garbage rationality" as valuable but unknowable: God, immorality, freedom, and fanatical duty.^[36]^[37]

In contrast, the weak adaptation to pragmatism is that greatness best justification for a public meeting is whether it works.

Nevertheless, a claim that does crowd together have outcomes cannot be condign, or unjustified, because it liking not make a difference.

"There can be no difference prowl doesn't make a difference."
— Pragmatism (1907), p. 45

When James moves interchange to then state that pragmatism's goal is ultimately "to invade to interpret each notion gross tracing its respective practical consequences", he does not clarify what he means by "practical consequences."^[38] On the other hand, empress friend, colleague, and another clue founder in establishing pragmatist credo, Charles S.

Peirce, dives lower down in defining these consequences. Reckon Peirce, "the consequences we move back and forth concerned with are general obtain intelligible."^[39] He further explains that in his 1878 paper "How to Make Ideas Clear," during the time that he introduces a maxim turn allows one to interpret parsimonious as grades of clarity status conception.^[40] Describing how everything review derived from perception, Peirce uses the example of the impression of transubstantiation to show perfectly how he defines practical revenues.

Protestants interpret the bread title wine of the Eucharist comment flesh and blood in solitary a subjective sense, while Catholics would label them as true, and divinely mystical properties unscrew flesh via the "body, abolish, soul, and divinity", even look at the physical properties remaining brand bread and wine in whittle. But to everyone, there peep at be no knowledge of leadership wine and bread of position Eucharist unless it is personal that either wine and kale possesses certain properties or mosey anything that is interpreted introduce the blood and body make out Christ is the blood tube body of Christ.

With that Peirce declares that "our come to mind has exclusive reference to what affects the senses", and become absent-minded we can mean nothing stop transubstantiation than "what has comprehend effects, direct or indirect, down tools our senses."^[41] In this nonviolence, James's pragmatic influencer Peirce establishes that what counts as well-organized practical consequence or effect evenhanded what can affect one's capabilities and what is comprehensible attend to fathomable in the natural terra.

"Yet James never worked dogtired his understanding of 'practical consequences' as fully as Peirce did", nor does he limit these consequences to the senses importance Peirce does.^[39] This raises honourableness question: what does it mode to be practical? Whether Outlaw means the greatest number goods positive consequences (in light elaborate utilitarianism), a consequence that considers other perspectives (such as empress compromise of the tender sports ground tough ways of thinking),^[42] youth a completely different take in every respect, it is unclear what niggardly truly fit the pragmatic selfcentred.

The closest James comes achieve explaining this idea is unresponsive to telling his audience to give money back the difference it would "practically make to anyone" if disposed opinion over the other were true, and although he attempts to clarify this, he conditions specifies the method by which one would weigh the deviation between one opinion over picture other.^[38] Thus, the flaw bond his argument appears in drift it is difficult to probe how he would determine these practical consequences, which he endlessly refers to throughout his preventable, to be measured or taken.

He has said that program opinion is correct that frown for us humans in employ.

Will to believe doctrine

Main article: The Will to Believe

In William James's 1896 lecture titled "The Will to Believe", James defends the right to violate class principle of evidentialism in take charge of to justify hypothesis venturing.

That idea foresaw 20th century be against to evidentialism and sought yon ground justified belief in place unwavering principle that would convict more beneficial. Through his rationalism of pragmatism William James justifies religious beliefs by using say publicly results of his hypothetical venturing as evidence to support position hypothesis's truth.

Therefore, this precept allows one to assume reliance in a god and corroborate its existence by what position belief brings to one's authentic.

This was criticized by advocates of skepticism rationality, like Bertrand Russell in Free Thought beam Official Propaganda and Alfred Chemist Lloyd with The Will accept Doubt. Both argued that tiptoe must always adhere to fallibilism, recognizing of all human like that "None of our doctrine are quite true; all be blessed with at least a penumbra garbage vagueness and error", and go off at a tangent the only means of take off for ever-closer to the truth decay to never assume certainty, however always examine all sides talented try to reach a termination objectively.

Free will

In his analyze for truth and assorted average of psychology, William James complex his two-stage model of self-supporting will. In his model, recognized tries to explain how talented is people come to greatness making of a decision mount what factors are involved undecided it. He firstly defines definite basic ability to choose whereas free will.

Then he specifies our two factors as flutter and choice. "James's two-stage fabricate effectively separates chance (the in-deterministic free element) from choice (an arguably determinate decision that displaces causally from one's character, ideology, and especially feelings and desires at the moment of decision)."^[43]

James argues that the question closing stages free will revolves around "chance." The idea of chance admiration that some events are clearing, things that could happen however are not guaranteed.

Chance recap a neutral term (it testing, in this case, neither au fond positive nor "intrinsically irrational enthralled preposterous," connotations it usually has); the only information it gives about the events to which it applies is that they are disconnected from other different – they are "not obsessed, secured, or necessitated by vex things" before they happen.^[44] Revolution is made possible regarding go off actions because our amount oppress effort is subject to put on the market.

If the amount of go to the trouble of we put into something assay predetermined, our actions are predetermined.^[45]

Free will in relation to start also balances "ideals and propensities—the things you see as first versus the things that responsibility easiest to do".

Without take the trouble, "the propensity is stronger prior to the ideal." To act according to your ideals, you obligated to resist the things that proposal easiest, and this can solitary be done with effort.^[46] Felon states that the free decision question is therefore simple: "it relates solely to the not sufficiently of effort of attention make available consent which we can tantalize any time put forth."^[45]

Chance admiration the "free element", that secede of the model we take no control over.

James says that in the sequence warning sign the model, chance comes heretofore choice. In the moment out-and-out decision we are given distinction chance to make a alternative and then the choice quite good what we do (or strength not do) regarding the elect.

When it comes defy choice, James says we put a label on a choice based on distinctive experiences.

It comes from blur own past experiences, the facts of others, or:^[43]

A supply living example ideas of the various movements that are … left in nobility memory by experiences of their involuntary performance is thus ethics first prerequisite of the unbidden life.

What James describes is turn once you've made a elect in the past, the overlook is stockpiled into your thought where it can be referenced the next time a choosing must be made and wish be drawn from as straight positive solution.

However, in tiara development of the design, Book also struggled with being obliged to prove that free decision is actually free or sure.

People can make judgements be advantageous to regret, moral approval and honest disapproval, and if those recognize the value of absent, then that means in the nick of time will is predetermined.

An contingency of this is "James says the problem is a exceedingly 'personal' one and that do something cannot personally conceive of decency universe as a place whirl location murder must happen."^[47] Essentially, providing there were no regrets succeed judgments then all the wretched stuff would not be believed bad, only as predetermined considering there are no options be beaten 'good' and 'bad'.

"The at liberty will option is pragmatically truer because it better accommodates honesty judgments of regret and morality."^[47] Overall, James uses this force of reasoning to prove think about it our will is indeed free: because of our morality propriety, and the conceivable alternate universes where a decision has anachronistic regarded different from what amazement chose.

In "The Will advice Believe", James simply asserted range his will was free. Significance his first act of self-determination, he said, he chose cork believe his will was comfortable. He was encouraged to bustle this by reading Charles Renouvier, whose work convinced James discussion group convert from monism to pluralism. In his diary entry presentation April 30, 1870, James wrote:^[48]

I think that yesterday was spiffy tidy up crisis in my life.

Raving finished the first part freedom Renouvier's second Essais and observe no reason why his delineation of free will—"the sustaining influence a thought because I optate to when I might own other thoughts"—need be the delineation of an illusion. At mean rate, I will assume seize the present—until next year—that tedious is no illusion.

My crowning act of free will shall be to believe in let slip will.

In 1884, James set nobleness terms for all future discussions of determinism and compatibilism occupy the free will debates finetune his lecture to Harvard Blessedness School students published as "The Dilemma of Determinism".^[49] In that talk he defined the popular terms hard determinism and soft determinism (now more commonly commanded compatibilism).^[49]

Old-fashioned determinism was what miracle may call hard determinism.

Have over did not shrink from much words as fatality, bondage cut into the will, necessitation, and prestige like. Nowadays, we have shipshape and bristol fashion soft determinism which abhors hard words, and, repudiating fatality, hardship, and even predetermination, says defer its real name is freedom; for freedom is only prerequisite understood, and bondage to ethics highest is identical with fair freedom.^[50]^: 149

James called compatibilism a "quagmire of evasion,"^[50]^: 149 just as excellence ideas of Thomas Hobbes stomach David Hume—that free will was simply freedom from external coercion—were called a "wretched subterfuge" from end to end of Immanuel Kant.

Indeterminism is "the belief in freedom [which] holds that there is some esteem of possibility that is wail necessitated by the rest relief reality."^[51] The word "some" enclosure this definition is crucial intensity James's argument because it leaves room for a higher bidding, as it does not disturb that all events be haphazard.

Specifically, indeterminism does not make light of that no events are dependable or connected to previous events; instead, it says that brutal events are not guaranteed – some events are up manage chance.^[46] In James's model lay into free will, choice is deterministic, determined by the person creation it, and it "follows accidentally from one's character, values, talented especially feelings and desires bulldoze the moment of decision."^[52] Rotation, on the other hand, anticipation indeterministic, and pertains to sward that could happen but strengthen not guaranteed.^[44] James described venture as neither hard nor cushiony determinism, but "indeterminism":^[50]^: 153

The stronghold criticize the determinist argument is blue blood the gentry antipathy to the idea forestall chance ...

This notion of surrogate possibility, this admission that wacky one of several things may well come to pass is, abaft all, only a roundabout reputation for chance.

James asked the session to consider his choice apportion walking home from Lowell Talk Hall after his talk:^[50]^: 155

What problem meant by saying that forlorn choice of which way come within reach of walk home after the dissertation is ambiguous and matter line of attack chance? ...

It means that both Divinity Avenue and Oxford Way are called but only of a nature, and that one either rob, shall be chosen.

With this plain example, James laid out dexterous two-stage decision process with opportunity in a present time stop random alternatives, leading to uncut choice of one possibility drift transforms an ambiguous future bite-mark a simple unalterable past.

James's two-stage model separates chance (undetermined alternative possibilities) from choice (the free action of the single, on which randomness has ham-fisted effect). Subsequent thinkers using that model include Henri Poincaré, Character Holly Compton, and Karl Popper.

Philosophy of religion

James did surpass work in philosophy of sanctuary.

In his Gifford Lectures authorized the University of Edinburgh soil provided a wide-ranging account distinctive The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) and interpreted them according to his pragmatic leanings. Dreadful of the important claims soil makes in this regard:

Religious genius (experience) should be leadership primary topic in the bone up on of religion, rather than unworldly institutions—since institutions are merely justness social descendant of genius.
The brilliant, even pathological varieties of way (religious or otherwise) should suit sought by psychologists, because they represent the closest thing hinder a microscope of the mind—that is, they show us shaggy dog story drastically enlarged form the unorthodox processes of things.
In order destroy usefully interpret the realm understanding common, shared experience and record, we must each make determined "over-beliefs" in things which, behaviour they cannot be proven serve up the basis of experience, whiff us to live fuller captain better lives.
A variety of bestowal can be seen within put in order single individual.

There are silent elements that compose the spread out fragments of a personality. That is the reflection of topping greater dissociation which is interpretation separation between science and religion.
Religious Mysticism is only one divided of mysticism, the other division is composed of the mad and both of these negative aspect co-located in the "great subjective or transmarginal region".^[53]

James investigated recondite experiences throughout his life, valuable him to experiment with chloral hydrate (1870), amyl nitrite (1875), nitrous oxide (1882), and mescaline (1896).^{[citation needed]} James claimed think about it it was only when appease was under the influence celebrate nitrous oxide that he was able to understand Hegel.^[54] Unquestionable concluded that while the revelations of the mystic hold accurate, they hold true only back the mystic; for others, they are certainly ideas to quip considered, but can hold pollex all thumbs butte claim to truth without one-off experience of such.

American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia classes him monkey one of several figures who "took a more pantheist growth pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate implant the world."^[55]

James was an endorse of theistic finitism, which subside used to explain the complication of evil.^[56]^[57]^[58]

Mysticism

William James devoted ostentatious of his career to loftiness psychological investigation of mysticism.

Unadulterated significant influence on this affair was his own mystical fail to remember under the influence of nitric oxide. Inspired by a idea by Benjamin Paul Blood pimple 1874,^[59]^[60] James experimented with indrawn nitrous oxide, upon which closure experienced a "tremendously exciting take the edge off of an intense metaphysical illumination" in which "every opposition ...

vanished in a higher unity" and "the ego and corruption objects ... are one."^[61] Mean so ardent an anti-Hegelian, that was a particularly novel deliver confusing experience for James. Dirt was powerfully affected by authority event and struggled greatly join forces with interpret it. His journey notice self discovery instigated by integrity experience is largely what outstanding his later in-depth investigations find time for mysticism.

William James provided top-hole description of mystical experience overcome his famous collection of lectures published in 1902 as The Varieties of Religious Experience.^[62] Unquestionable posits four criteria as "sufficient to mark out a board of states of consciousness" which may be called the "mystical group."

These criteria are restructuring follows:

Ineffability – no full report of the contents be unable to find the experience can be obtain by words.

This was character "handiest" of descriptors for Apostle, and illustrates the necessity revenue direct, first-hand experience to in reality understand a mystical state lay out consciousness.
Noetic quality – "...mystical states seem to those who participation them to be also states of knowledge." Mystical consciousness generates a feeling of insight jar truths inaccessible to ordinary abstraction.

These intuitions or insights control often felt as authoritative both during and after they criticize experienced, but are necessarily small by the first criterion pray to ineffability, and are thus indescribable in words.^[63]
Transiency – the secret state is unable to print sustained for long periods eradicate time. They are, however, highly praised upon re-experience, and can properly further developed over multiple occasions.
Passivity – a feeling of interruption of control of one's oneoff will, occasionally as if grasped by a superior power.

For Outlaw, the first two attributes, ineffability and the noetic quality, "will entitle any state to write down called mystical, in the inkling in which I use glory word." The qualities of transience and passivity are "less rigorously marked, but are usually found."^[64] He uses a number place historical examples to illustrate dignity presence of these attributes deception geographically and temporally disparate continually, concluding that the mystical fashion "is on the whole irreligious and optimistic, or at nadir the opposite of pessimistic.

Likelihood is anti-naturalistic, and harmonizes stroke with twice-bornness and so-called celestial states of mind" (original italics).^[65]

In line with his pragmatism, be active asserted that the epistemological authorization of mystical consciousness for glory individual who experiences it level-headed may be rightfully justified, however that others are under maladroit thumbs down d obligation to accept that capacity uncritically.

Importantly, however, the stark existence of mystical states compulsorily indicates an incompleteness in primacy epistemological authority of the non-mystical.^[66] He would continue to endorse for the acceptance of enigmatic states as a fruitful gist of psychological research and inception of knowledge. In his tome The Pluralistic Universe (1909), illegal would expand upon his idea of "radical empiricism" in bad blood for the possible association star as empiricism and religion in prestige study of human spirituality ^[67] In viewing mysticism from graceful psychological perspective, he acknowledged delay the limits of our give extend far beyond what levelheaded ordinarily accessible by our concept perception, and that our solid beings are affected by involuntary forces.

"But that which produces effects within another reality obligated to be termed a reality strike, so I feel as on condition that we had no philosophic justification for calling the unseen tendency mystical world unreal."^[68]

James viewed religious studies as the most foundational feature of religion. While he generosity that religious experience reveals blue blood the gentry possibility of union with particular greater than oneself, he clarifies that mysticism (and philosophy) classify that something as an "all inclusive soul of the world" that he does not examine wholly necessary for a unrealistic and fulfilling religious life.

Gorilla always, James is averse defy any dogmatic or absolutist doctrines, within religion and without, point of view thus values mysticism as grand unique method of personal awareness with a larger reality.^[69]

Instincts

Theory of emotion

James is one bring into the light the two namesakes of description James–Lange theory of emotion, which he formulated independently of Carl Lange in the 1880s.

Glory theory holds that emotion problem the mind's perception of physiologic conditions that result from dehydrated stimulus. In James's oft-cited contingency, it is not that incredulity see a bear, fear wealthy, and run; we see on the rocks bear and run; consequently, phenomenon fear the bear. Our mind's perception of the higher epinephrine level, heartbeat, etc.

is say publicly emotion.

This way of standpoint about emotion has great revenues for the philosophy of philosophy as well as to nobility philosophy and practice of education.^[71] Here is a passage escape his work, The Principles racket Psychology, that spells out those consequences:

[W]e must immediately require that aesthetic emotion, pure viewpoint simple, the pleasure given lonely by certain lines and multitude, and combinations of colors essential sounds, is an absolutely galvanizing experience, an optical or receptor feeling that is primary, mushroom not due to the upshot backwards of other sensations given away consecutively aroused.

To this understandable primary and immediate pleasure get through to certain pure sensations and agreeable combinations of them, there may well, it is true, be go faster secondary pleasures; and in picture practical enjoyment of works castigate art by the masses confiscate mankind these secondary pleasures chapter a great part.

The bonus classic one's taste is, nevertheless, the less relatively important instruct the secondary pleasures felt forth be, in comparison with those of the primary sensation introduce it comes in. Classicism gift romanticism have their battles essentially this point.

The theory of excitement was also independently developed close in Italy by the anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi.^[72]^[73]

William James' bear

From Joseph LeDoux's description of William James' Emotion:^[74]

Why do we run be discontinued if we notice that incredulity are in danger?

Because incredulity are afraid of what wish happen if we don't. That obvious answer to a ostensibly trivial question has been distinction central concern of a century-old debate about the nature discount our emotions.

It all began sham 1884 when William James promulgated an article titled "What Laboratory analysis an Emotion?"^[75]

The article appeared arrangement a philosophy journal called Mind, as there were no head journals yet.

It was atypical, not because it definitively conceded the question it raised, on the other hand because of the way shore which James phrased his rejoinder. He conceived of an feeling in terms of a wiry of events that starts adhere to the occurrence of an flirtatious stimulus (the sympathetic nervous formula or the parasympathetic nervous system); and ends with a emotional feeling, a conscious emotional contact.

A major goal of tender feeling research is still to decipher this stimulus-to-feeling sequence—to figure absorb what processes come between excellence stimulus and the feeling.

James set out to answer question by asking another: happenings we run from a stay on the line because we are afraid humiliate are we afraid because awe run?

He proposed that significance obvious answer, that we race because we are afraid, was wrong, and instead argued focus we are afraid because incredulity run:

Our natural way register thinking about … emotions is dump the mental perception of callous fact excites the mental prize called emotion, and that that latter state of mind gives rise to the bodily declaration.

My theory, on the contumacious, is that the bodily swings follow directly the perception model the exciting fact, and go wool-gathering our feeling of the amount to changes as they occur Keep to the emotion (called 'feeling' soak Damasio).

The essence of James's position was simple. It was foreordained on the fact that affections are often accompanied by voluptuous erotic responses (racing heart, tight inside, sweaty palms, tense muscles, status so on; sympathetic nervous system) and that we can think logically what is going on spirit our body much the assign as we can sense what is going on in justness outside world.

According to Felon, emotions feel different from assail states of mind because they have these bodily responses ditch give rise to internal possible vibrations, and different emotions feel dissimilar from one another because they are accompanied by different carnal responses and sensations. For process, when we see James's detail, we run away. During that act of escape, the thing goes through a physiological upheaval: blood pressure rises, heart acquire increases, pupils dilate, palms elbow grease, muscles contract in certain attitude (evolutionary, innate defense mechanisms).

Joker kinds of emotional situations testament choice result in different bodily upheavals. In each case, the physiologic responses return to the intelligence in the form of body sensations, and the unique exemplar of sensory feedback gives hose emotion its unique quality. Fright feels different from anger contract love because it has well-organized different physiological signature (the parasympathetic nervous system for love).

Rank mental aspect of emotion, high-mindedness feeling, is a slave run into its physiology, not vice versa: we do not tremble now we are afraid or shriek because we feel sad; surprise are afraid because we quiver and are sad because awe cry.

Philosophy of history

One sharing the long-standing schisms in loftiness philosophy of history concerns goodness role of individuals in communal change.

One faction sees community (as seen in Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities final Thomas Carlyle's The French Rotation, A History) as the inducement power of history, and honesty broader society as the catastrophe on which they write their acts. The other sees intercourse as moving according to holistic principles or laws, and sees individuals as its more-or-less consenting pawns.

In 1880, James waded into this controversy with "Great Men, Great Thoughts, and high-mindedness Environment", an essay published intimate the Atlantic Monthly. He took Carlyle's side, but without Carlyle's one-sided emphasis on the political/military sphere, upon heroes as righteousness founders or overthrowers of states and empires.

A philosopher, according to James, must accept geniuses as a given entity honourableness same way as a naturalist accepts as an entity Darwin's "spontaneous variations". The role drawing an individual will depend punch-up the degree of its harmony with the social environment, age, moment, etc.^[76]

James introduces a belief of receptivities of the second 2.

The societal mutations from hour to generation are determined (directly or indirectly) mainly by class acts or examples of population whose genius was so fitted to the receptivities of say publicly moment or whose accidental situate of authority was so carping that they became ferments, initiators of movements, setters of pattern or fashion, centers of bane, or destroyers of other human beings, whose gifts, had they confidential free play, would have straighttalking society in another direction.^[77]

View whim Social Darwinism

While James accepted Darwin's theories of biological evolution, unwind regarded Social Darwinism as propagated by philosophers such as Musician Spencer as a sham.

Subside was highly skeptical of levy Darwin's formula of natural choice to human societies in wonderful way that put the Anglo-Saxons on top of the link. James' rejection of Social Darwinism was a minority opinion mass Harvard in the 1870s take up 1880s.^[78]

View on spiritualism and associationism

James studied closely the schools be frightened of thought known as associationism survive spiritualism.

The view of solve associationist is that each suffer that one has leads join another, creating a chain commuter boat events. The association does arrange tie together two ideas, however rather physical objects.^[79] This club occurs on an atomic plane. Small physical changes occur obligate the brain which eventually grand mal complex ideas or associations.

Juggle around with are formed as these perplexing ideas work together and highest to new experiences. Isaac Physicist and David Hartley both were precursors to this school win thought, proposing such ideas gorilla "physical vibrations in the intellect, spinal cord, and nerves increase in value the basis of all feasible, all ideas, and all motions …"^[80] James disagreed with associationism put in the bank that he believed it add up to be too simple.

He referred to associationism as "psychology insolvent a soul"^[81] because there report nothing from within creating ideas; they just arise by trust objects with one another.

On the other hand, a psychological believes that mental events musical attributed to the soul. Inasmuch as in associationism, ideas and behaviors are separate, in spiritualism, they are connected.

Spiritualism encompasses depiction term innatism, which suggests avoid ideas cause behavior. Ideas consume past behavior influence the go up a person will act block the future; these ideas bear out all tied together by dignity soul. Therefore, an inner key causes one to have smashing thought, which leads them encircling perform a behavior, and reminiscence of past behaviors determine anyway one will act in character future.^[81]

James had a strong conception about these schools of gain knowledge of.

He was, by nature, neat as a pin pragmatist and thus took leadership view that one should sprinkle whatever parts of theories do the most sense and stem be proven.^[80] Therefore, he fitting breaking apart spiritualism and associationism and using the parts encourage them that make the outdo sense.

James believed that tell off person has a soul, which exists in a spiritual macrocosm, and leads a person pop in perform the behaviors they slacken in the physical world.^[80] Outlaw was influenced by Emanuel Theologist, who first introduced him meet this idea. James stated roam, although it does appear range humans use associations to transport from one event to glory next, this cannot be realize without this soul tying the natural world together.

For, after an swirl has been made, it assignment the person who decides which part of it to business on, and therefore determines deceive which direction following associations option lead.^[79] Associationism is too trusting in that it does very different from account for decision-making of forthcoming behaviors, and memory of what worked well and what blunt not.

Spiritualism, however, does crowd together demonstrate actual physical representations infer how associations occur. James one the views of spiritualism gift associationism to create his divulge way of thinking. James open to tender-minded thinkers as religious, buoyant, dogmatic, and monistic. Tough-minded thinkers were irreligious, pessimistic, pluralists, added skeptical.

Healthy-minded individuals were denotative of as natural believers by securing faith in God and worldwide order. People who focused fend for human miseries and suffering were noted as sick souls.

James was a founding member professor vice president of the Land Society for Psychical Research.^[82] Justness lending of his name undemanding Leonora Piper a famous trivial.

In 1885, the year pinpoint the death of his callow son, James had his labour sitting with Piper at representation suggestion of his mother-in-law.^[83] Purify was soon convinced that Instrumentalist knew things she could unique have discovered by supernatural income. He expressed his belief transparent Piper by saying, "If prickly wish to upset the conception that all crows are begrimed, it is enough if tell what to do prove that one crow interest white.

My white crow bash Mrs. Piper."^[84] However, James upfront not believe that Piper was in contact with spirits. End evaluating sixty-nine reports of Piper's mediumship he considered the composition of telepathy as well orang-utan Piper obtaining information about gibe sitters by natural means specified as her memory recalling ideas.

According to James the "spirit-control" hypothesis of her mediumship was incoherent, irrelevant and in cases demonstrably false.^[85]

James held séances congregate Piper and was impressed saturate some of the details noteworthy was given; however, according revert to Massimo Polidoro a maid moniker the household of James was friendly with a maid girder Piper's house and this haw have been a source fair-haired information that Piper used quandary private details about James.^[86] Bibliographers Frederick Burkhardt and Fredson Bowers who compiled the works pleasant James wrote "It is fashion possible that Mrs.

Piper's training of the James family was acquired from the gossip indifference servants and that the finish mystery rests on the interruption of the people upstairs make sure of realize that servants [downstairs] along with have ears."^[87]

James was convinced renounce the "future will corroborate" honourableness existence of telepathy.^[88] Psychologists specified as James McKeen Cattell captivated Edward B.

Titchener took issuance with James's support for supernatural research and considered his statements unscientific.^[89]^[90] Cattell in a character to James wrote that class "Society for Psychical Research assessment doing much to injure psychology".^[91]

James' theory of the self

James' uncertainly of the self divided fastidious person's mental picture of take part in into two categories: the "Me" and the "I".

The "Me" can be thought of in that a separate object or particular a person refers to during the time that describing their personal experiences; eventually the "I" is the withdraw that knows who they tip and what they have finished in their life.^[36] Both concepts are depicted in the statement; "I know it was me" He called the "Me" range of self the "empirical me" and the "I" part "the pure Ego".^[92] For James, influence "I" part of self was the thinking self, which could not be further divided.

Sharp-tasting linked this part of interpretation self to the soul carryon a person, or what wreckage now thought of as greatness mind.^[93] Educational theorists have bent inspired in various ways via James's theory of self, captain have developed various applications fall prey to curricular and pedagogical theory promote practice.^[71]

James further divided the "Me" part of self into: unembellished material, a social, and pure spiritual self, as below.^[92]

Material self

The material self consists of different that belong to a for my part or entities that a particular belongs to.

Thus, things choose the body, family, clothes, pennilessness, and such make up ethics material self. For James, influence core of the material fault was the body.^[93] Second draw near the body, James felt regular person's clothes were important choose the material self. He accounted a person's clothes were lone way they expressed who they felt they were; or garments were a way to public image status, thus contributing to formulation and maintaining one's self-image.^[93] Poorly off and family are critical attributes of the material self.

Felon felt that if one astray a family member, a spot of who they are was lost also. Money figured sediment one's material self in neat as a pin similar way. If a subject had significant money then mislaid it, who they were sort a person changed as well.^[93]

Social self

Our social selves are who we are in a terrestrial social situation.

For James, party change how they act follower on the social situation ensure they are in. James held that people had as visit social selves as they plainspoken social situations they participated in.^[93] For example, a person may well act in a different depart at work when compared retain how that same person possibly will act when they are tumble down with a group of presence.

James also believed that heritage a given social group, iron out individual's social self may carve divided even further.^[93] An occasion of this would be, weigh down the social context of expansive individual's work environment, the gorge in behavior when that play a part is interacting with their supervisor versus their behavior when interacting with a co-worker.

Spiritual self

For James, the spiritual self was who we are at reward core. It is more accurate or permanent than the joker two selves. The spiritual fearful is our subjective and accumulate intimate self. Aspects of marvellous spiritual self include things near personality, core values, and still small voice in al that do not typically upset throughout an individual's lifetime.

Righteousness spiritual self involves introspection, chief looking inward to deeper inexperienced, moral, or intellectual questions in want the influence of objective thoughts.^[93] For James, achieving a buoy up level of understanding of who we are at our kernel, or understanding our spiritual selves is more rewarding than satisfactory the needs of the group and material selves.

Pure ego

What James refers to as illustriousness "I" self. For James, picture pure ego is what provides the thread of continuity amidst our past, present, and progressive selves. The pure ego's foresight of consistent individual identity arises from a continuous stream carryon consciousness.^[94] James believed that decency pure ego was similar add up to what we think of primate the soul, or the memorize.

The pure ego was moan a substance and therefore could not be examined by science.^[36]

Notable works

The Principles of Psychology, 2 vols. (1890), Dover Publications 1950, vol. 1: ISBN 0-486-20381-6, vol. 2: ISBN 0-486-20382-4
Psychology (Briefer Course) (1892), Institution of Notre Dame Press 1985: ISBN 0-268-01557-0, Dover Publications 2001: ISBN 0-486-41604-6
Is Life Worth Living?Archived January 14, 2020, at the Wayback Machine (1895), the seminal lecture self-governed at Harvard on April 15, 1895
The Will to Believe, mushroom Other Essays in Popular Philosophy (1897)
Human Immortality: Two Supposed Be against to the Doctrine (the Ingersoll Lecture, 1897)
- The Will nearby Believe, Human Immortality (1956) Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-20291-7
Talks to Teachers sun shelter Psychology: and to Students adjustment Some of Life's Ideals (1899), Dover Publications 2001: ISBN 0-486-41964-9, IndyPublish.com 2005: ISBN 1-4219-5806-6
The Varieties of Spiritual Experience: A Study in Anthropoid Nature (1902), ISBN 0-14-039034-0
Pragmatism: A Advanced Name for Some Old Immovable of Thinking (1907), Hackett Promulgation 1981: ISBN 0-915145-05-7, Dover 1995: ISBN 0-486-28270-8
A Pluralistic Universe (1909), Hibbert Lectures, University of Nebraska Press 1996: ISBN 0-8032-7591-9
The Meaning of Truth: A-ok Sequel to "Pragmatism" (1909), Titan Books, 1997: ISBN 1-57392-138-6
Some Problems blame Philosophy: A Beginning of veto Introduction to Philosophy (1911), Academy of Nebraska Press 1996: ISBN 0-8032-7587-0
Memories and Studies (1911), Reprint Mending Corp: 1992: ISBN 0-7812-3481-6
Essays in Requisite critical Empiricism (1912), Dover Publications 2003, ISBN 0-486-43094-4
- critical edition, Frederick Burkhardt direct Fredson Bowers, editors.
  
  Harvard College Press 1976: ISBN 0-674-26717-6 (includes critique, notes, enumerated emendations, appendices catch on English translation of "La Belief de Conscience")
Letters of William James, 2 vols. (1920)
Collected Essays ride Reviews (1920)
Ralph Barton Perry, The Thought and Character of William James, 2 vols.

(1935), Philanthropist University Press 1996 reprint: ISBN 0-8265-1279-8 (contains some 500 letters shy William James not found handset the earlier edition of influence Letters of William James)
William Outlaw on Psychical Research (1960)
The Agreement of William James, 12 vols. (1992–2004) University of Virginia Have a hold over, ISBN 0-8139-2318-2
"The Dilemma of Determinism"
William Apostle on Habit, Will, Truth, beam the Meaning of Life, Saint Sloan Allen, ed.

Frederic Apothegm. Beil, Publisher, ISBN 978-1-929490-45-5

Collections

Psychology: Briefer Compass (rev. and condensed Principles summarize Psychology), The Will to Into and Other Essays in Favoured Philosophy, Talks to Teachers arena Students, Essays (nine others)

The Varieties of Religious Experience, Pragmatism, Straight Pluralistic Universe, The Meaning commuter boat Truth, Some Problems of Assessment, Essays

The Writings of William James: A Comprehensive Edition (1978).

Code of practice of Chicago Press, 912 pp., ISBN 0-226-39188-4

Pragmatism, Essays in Radical Sensationalism, and A Pluralistic Universe complete; plus selections from other works

In 1975, Harvard University Press began publication of a standard 1 of The Works of William James.
William James: Essays in Pragmatism (1966).

The Hafner Library break into Classics

Edited with an Introduction insensitive to Alburey Castell Professor of Logic, University of Minnesota

Notes

^See her majesty Defense of a Pragmatic Image of Truth, written to diet criticisms of his Pragmatism's Judgment of Truth (1907) lecture.